Nuclear Power

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0 height="100%"><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=120 BGCOLOR="#0000FF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <B>Nuclear Power</B><FONT SIZE="6" COLOR="#FFFFFF" FACE="Arial" ><B>     </B></FONT><FONT SIZE="4" COLOR="#FFFFFF" FACE="Arial" ><B> </B></FONT><FONT SIZE="4" COLOR="#FFFFCC" FACE="Arial" ><B>Welcome to Energy Control Systems</B></FONT></div> <div> <A HREF="id17.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Implementation"><U><B>Implementation</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id43.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Carbon Pollution Reduction"><U><B>Carbon Pollution Reduction</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id27.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lifestyle"><U><B>Lifestyle</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id28.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Desert Oases"><U><B>Desert Oases</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id29.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Fossil Fuels"><U><B>Fossil Fuels</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id30.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Renewable Energy Sources"><U><B>Renewable Energy Sources</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id31.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Recycling"><U><B>Recycling</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Agriculture"><U><B>Agriculture</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id33.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Acquaculture"><U><B>Acquaculture</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id34.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Hot Rocks"><U><B>Hot Rocks</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id35.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="LockingUp CO2"><U><B>Locking-Up CO2</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id36.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Transport"><U><B>Transport</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><B>Nuclear Power</B><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id39.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Nuclear Fusion"><U><B>Nuclear Fusion</B></U></A><B>   |   </B><A HREF="id42.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="New Markets"><U><B>New Markets</B></U></A></div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=210 BGCOLOR="#FFCC66" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <A HREF="http://www.nvicon.org/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.nvicon.org/"><U><B>HOME</B></U></A></div> <div> <B>Energy Control Systems</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <bR> <div> <B>PO Box 207, Gawler, </B></div> <div> <B>South Australia, 5118 </B></div> <div> <B>Contact us:</B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>email: barossaserve@hotmail.com </B></div> <bR> <div> <B>All Information on this site is </B></div> <div> <B>©</B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B> 2009 Clive Pearson</B></FONT></div> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" height=360 BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000" background="05a80803.jpg"> <bR> <div> <B>Nuclear Power</B></div> <div> <B>Nuclear fission was first demonstrated in the laboratory in Germany in the 1930's. During WWII, serious attempts were made in Germany and in the U.S.A. to develop nuclear fission reactors for electrical power generation and for weapons production. </B></div> <div> <B>The American Manhattan Project, which drew upon the efforts of a large team of U.S. and expatriate scientists, was successfully concluded in 1945, when nuclear weapons were exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. </B></div> <div> <B>The first commercial nuclear power station came on line in 1957. </B></div> <div> <FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B>Comprehensive information of nuclea power generation is available on the internet from the Australian Uranium Association, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia through the following link:- </B></FONT><A HREF="http://www.aua.org.au/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.aua.org.au/"><U><B>http://www.aua.org.au/</B></U></A></div> <div> <FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B>The World Nuclear Organisation provides very full up-to-date worldwide information of current and proposed nuclear power reactors on its web site, </B></FONT><A HREF="http://www.world-nuclear.org/" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.world-nuclear.org/"><U><B>http://www.world-nuclear.org/</B></U></A><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Economics of Nuclear Power Generation</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>Very careful, substantiated economic studies show that, if ALL costs of waste storage and of capitalisation are considered, nuclear power is significantly less expensive than power produced by burning coal or other fossil fuels. </B></div> <div> <B>Except as a by-product of the construction phase, a nuclear fission reactor does not produce significant amounts of greenhouse gases.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Unsubstantiated statements by lobby groups that "it's too expensive" are untrue.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Wind power may have a comparable cost per kWh, but is not continously available and has limited capacity per machine. However, wind power turbines may be interconnected as a grid with a number of machines spread over a wide area, and may be the best solution for the electrical power and water desalination requirememnts of rural areas in Australia.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Combined Cycle Power Generation</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>The overall efficiency of power generation is considerably improved if waste heat is employed for the desalination of water or for other industrial processes.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Safety</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>The safety record of the nuclear power industry is far better than that of the coal industry.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>There has been only one failure of a nuclear power station (Chernobyl), which caused loss of life. This was the result of obsolete design, an unforeseen design fault, and of unauthorised disregard of correct operating procedures during testing and commissioning. </B></div> <div> <B>The failed Chernobyl reactor was of an early Russian design in which an increase in operating temperature increased thermal power output. Overheating, if not corrected, resulted in loss of the water which normally cools the reactor and which moderates the reaction. Chernobyl incorporated a safety shut-down graphite moderator assembly, but graphite is an ineffective moderator at high temperature, and it was activated after all water had evaporated from the core of the reactor. In the absence of the cooling water supply, melt-down resulted and the containment of nuclear materials failed. </B></div> <div> <B>Most designs of Generation IV reactors are endothermic - that is, activity reduces as temperature increases, so preventing thermal runaway. Highly reliable, duplicated, mechanical and electrical safety systems are mandatory.</B></div> <div> <B>Toxic Wastes </B></div> <div> <B>Some early designs of nuclear reactors, known as breeder reactors, intentionally produced radioactive isotopes from natural uranium which sheathed the reactor core. The plutonium which was produced was used either to make reactor fuel elements or was incorporated in nuclear weapons. Unfortunately the plutonioum and other products of high atomic number have very long half-lives, so that they present a difficult problem of safe storage. </B></div> <div> <B>The new and proposed reactor types, "Generation 3A" and "Generation 4", which are listed on the World Nuclear Organisation web-site, are designed to "burn" long-lived toxic waste products and produce a small amount of low activity, short-lived wastes, which present a readily managed disposal or storage problem. </B></div> <div> <B>Australia has suitable secure locations on Commonwealth ground for the safe long-term storage of nuclear wastes. Alternatively, it is proposed that re-cycled wastes should be mixed with spent fuel to reduce the activity level to that of naturally occurring uranium, then buried back at the original mine site. High level wastes may be stored within the reactor shield or in secure above-ground sites for 5 years, by which time the activity level will have decayed sufficiently to permit permanent storage at the mine site or with other industrial waste. </B></div> <div> <B>Reactor Types</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>Approximately 440 nuclear power stations of all types are currently in service.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>There is a trade-off between the reactor operating temperature and efficiency. However, high temperature, high efficiency reactors require careful design to avoid the metallurgical problems which result from corrosion of the coolant system.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>The type of reactor also affects the characteristics of the nuclear wastes which are produced, which may have an effect upon the operating economics of the reactor.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>France generates 80% of its total power needs by nuclear energy, with about 10% of total capacity generated by windpower. France is a supplier of nuclear power installations to several other countries, including China, South Africa, Korea and Japan.</B><B> Other developed nations, e.g. the U.S.A., the U.K., Germany, Spain and others, have re-commenced nuclear power programmes in order to replace the dwindling supplies of fossil fuels and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. </B></div> <div> <B>Marine Reactors</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>Small floating nuclear reactors of established, safe design may be constructed quickly in the developed countries. The possibility of mass construction techniques and the development of a trained labour force, with long-term employment, makes this course of action potentially attractive.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>They may be deployed flexibly to provide non-polluting power stations, co-generating potable water supply. </B><B>at any coastal location. </B><B>They require a minimum of infrastructure support.</B><B> </B><B> The supplier may retain full control of the reactor fuel elements, preventing any possibility of the proliferation of nuclear weapons.  </B></div> <div> <B>This is probably the quickest way of providing efficient power generation capacity to the developing countries, without producing greenhouse gas emissions.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>The same facilities could be used to provide regular major maintenance, returning the complete reactor by sea to the place of manufacture. A new or re-furbished reactor could replace the reactor which is being maintained.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Whyalla in South Australia would be an ideal location for the mass construction of floating reactors. It has an existing steelworks, a shipyard with dry dock and deep water harbour facilities, established sub-contractor factories, adequate housing and access to electrical power. It is conveniently located for access to uranium mining facilities, where fuel enrichment and processing facilities could be established.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Uranium Mining</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>Australia has about 30% of the world's reserves of uranium. Uranium is the most commonly used fuel for nuclear reactors and so will be in increasing demand for the task of reducing global warming.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>For political, moral, ecological and financial reasons, we will be unable to resist international pressure to expand the mining and export of uranium.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Fuel Processing</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>The processed uranium ore, uranium oxide or "yellowcake" consists mainly of the oxide of Uranium 238, with about 0.72% of the oxide of Uranium 235. It is moderately radioactive.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>To sustain a chain reaction in most designs of commercial reactor, the proportion of uranium 235 must be enriched, typically to between 3% and 5%. This is usually accomplished by the diffusion of gaseous uranium hexafluoride through a semi-permeable membrane. Since the difference in molecular weight of compounds of the two isotopes U</B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B>238</B></FONT><B> & U</B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B>235</B></FONT><B> is very small, the difference in the rates of diffusion is also small. In order to achieve the necessary level of U</B><FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B>235</B></FONT><B> hexafluoride which is required, the enriched gas stream is returned to the input of the separator and is recycled many times. Note that uranium which has been enriched for use in nuclear power stations is unsuitable for use in nuclear weapons, and is unable to cause an explosion.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>The enriched uranium is converted back to uranium oxide and manufactured into fuel assemblies, as required for the design of reactor which is to be fuelled.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>It is recommended that Australia's uranium output should be enriched and manufactured into fuel assemblies at the mine sites, to ensure security of the material, to enable the return of waste material to the ore body, and to add value to the exported fuel. </B></div> <div> <B>MOX Reactors </B></div> <div> <B>The spent fuel from a reactor may be re-used, to produce more energy, by adding enriched uranium, to produce MOX (Mixed Oxide) fuel. This has the added benefit of converting plutonium into less hazardous nuclear wastes, which facilitates the safe sorage of wastes. Also, the extraction of weapons-grade material from spent fuel assemblies is more difficult.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>MOX fuel is used in 30 European reactors and an additional 20 reactors are awaiting licenses. Japan plans to use MOX fuel in a third of its reactors by 2010. In addition, both Russia and the United States may possibly use MOX fuel in five reactors and six reactors, respectively. The fuel is produced in commercial quantities at four separate plants located in Belgium, the United Kingdom, and France. </B></div> <div> <B>Thorium as a Fuel </B></div> <div> <B>Thorium is, if anything, more plentiful in ore reserves than uranium and may be used as a reactor fuel. It is easier to process than uranium ore and the wastes are less hazardous to store, with shorter half-life. In Australia, it is estimated that thorium is approximately 3 times as abundant as uranium. </B></div> <div> <B>The mining and processing of thorium in Australia should be encouraged.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>The CANDU Reactor</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>The CANDU reactor (Canadian low pressure, heavy water moderated reactor) is in service in Canada. While the charge of heavy water is expensive, it is not a consumable component of the reactor, and the CANDU reactor need not rely upon enriched uranium as a fuel. </B></div> <div> <B>The CANDU design has two separate automatic safety shutdown systems. In addition, this type of low temperature reactor becomes less active in the event of an increase in operating temperature.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>It has been selected for use in China, and South Africa. </B></div> <div> <B>The CANDU reactor may be fuelled with un-enriched uranium or thorium. It may be maintained by replacement of spent fuel rods without being completely shut-down. It can "burn" mixed plutonium fuel, producing a less hazardous waste.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>If the manufacture and re-processing of reactor fuel elements is carried out in Australia, then control of access to weapons grade material may be assured.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Nuclear Heat Sources</B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Times New Roman" ><B> </B></FONT></div> <div> <B>Nuclear waste which is thermally active, but which is not capable of sustaining a chain reaction, may be stored in unmanned low power installations to provide heat and to generate electricity for such applications as the desalination of water, pumping etc.</B><B> </B></div> <div> <B>Such installations may be shielded with concrete and with an earth backfill, to ensure secure and radiologically safe storage of suitable thermally-active wastes.</B><B> </B></div> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>